Fossil Fuels – discovery, utilisation and future

As industry developed and increased, as did the need for reliable and efficient fuels to power the new machinery developed. It did not take long before fossil fuels were discovered, with their innate ability to provide high amounts of energy at seemingly low costs. Fossil fuels are found deposited in rock formations. They were formed between 350 million and 50 million years ago, and so, although are technically renewable, it would take this long to remake them, which does not really help us today, it is due to the fact we need this long to make them that they are considered nonrenewable, and therefore will at some point run out. The processes by which they formed are not totally understood, other than that sediments buried decayed remains of ancient plants and/or animals. This is then effectively baked over millions of years under conditions of very high temperature and pressure, creating coal, oil, and natural gas, which consist of roughly 90% carbon Fossil fuels are used widely in all forms of industry, in fact, coal, petroleum and gas provides over 90% of the energy used in most industrialized countries, compared with just 9% which hydroelectricity and nuclear power provide together. You can read also Waves When looking at the properties of a good fuel, it is easy to see why fossil fuels are used: * A fuel should react with an oxidiser to release large amounts of energy – carbon based fuels release over 30000 kJ per kilogram * A fuel must be oxidised fairly easily, ignite quickly and sustain burning without further intervention – gaseous or easily vaporized fuels (such as oil) usually perform well here as the mix easily and continuously with oxygen which speeds up the reaction. Coal is often crushed to form small powders to make it ignite easier, however it is evident from steam the reliability of steam trains that carbon is easily burnt. * A fuel should be readily available, in large quantities and at a reasonable price – initially this could be said to be true about fossil fuels, but now, as people become more aware of their cons, and of other fuels' pros, they are becoming more expensive and less available. Still, the price of oil is so heavily depended upon by the economy, that even the slight fluctuation in price can cause a country to go to war or a government to fall. * A fuel should not burn to give products that are difficult to dispose of, unpleasant or harmful – fossil fuels definitely do not fall under this category, but the only fuel that does fall under this category is hydrogen. * A fuel should be convenient to store and transport safely and with out loss – fossil fuels are the only type of fuel that people are currently comfortable with storing, hydrogen and methane are so flammable that people get nervous about using them for cars, and until a safe way of storing them is developed, fossil fuels will have to continue to be used You may then wonder what the problem with fossil fuels is as they are obviously good at their job. What we must consider is the fact that they are non-renewable, and that we are consuming them at an incredible rate. It is predicted that most of the Earth's oil sources will be depleted over the century. Also, fossil fuels are used in many important chemical industries, such as making plastics, medicines, and solvents, and by burning them, we are decreasing our the feedstock for these vital products. Fossil fuels such as oil are made into these products through a series of different processes. First the oil is fractionally distilled then the different sections join together to make polymers. These synthetic plastics and solvents are used largely in everyday life, such as polystyrene cups and PVC plastic. Secondly, the burning of carbon based fuels produces large amounts of carbon dioxide that is one of the main contributors to the â€Å"greenhouse effect†. There are such drastically high levels of carbon dioxide in the air that the only real solution would be to ban all use of fossil fuels, but countries have become so dependant upon them that is not feasible. Thirdly, spillages of fossil fuels cause serious damages to local environments. When an oil tanker crashes, immense amounts of sea life and birds die, and the effects are disastrous. Fourthly, inefficient burning of fossil fuels results in the production of carbon monoxide, which is a very harmful and poisonous gas. Inhalation of this gas is likely to cause death as it interferes with the transport of oxygen in the blood stream. Fifthly, combustion of fossil fuels also produces gases such as nitrogen oxides, which cause acid rain. In particular we can look at oil. Numerous countries' entire economies now rely on the price of oil, as their entire wealth is in the drilling, extracting, and trading in it. This is cause for great concern as oil is non-renewable, and we are consuming it so quickly, it will inevitably run out, and counties will no longer be able to rely on it. We have seen in the past that countries' entire economies' have collapsed due to minor fluctuations in the oil market, therefore total collapse of the market would be devastating for many of the world's major and influential countries. Also, there would be immense amounts of job losses that would inevitably affect the society; this can be seen by looking at the destruction caused when the coalmines closed. There are few ways which can be seen to overcome this imminent problem, however, one, most likely solution would be to investigate alternatives to fossil fuels, but all of the possible alternatives have their advantages and disadvantages which must be taken into account before making any changes. * Biofuels (plants can be grown specifically for fuel or the production of fuel, such as wood or sugar cane. Biogas and biomass created by the growing and decaying of plants already produce usable fuel so this could easily be exploited to create a fuel source.) Advantages – renewable, reduces waste, simple technology. Disadvantages – not a large enough supply to totally replace fossil fuels * Methanol CH3OH (this is a simple alcohol which can be made from methane.) Advantages – burns cleanly and completely Disadvantages – more toxic than ethanol, provides less energy per litre than petrol, can cause corrosion of car engines. * Nuclear fission (energy is released when the nuclei of atoms of isotopes of uranium U-35 are split. The energy created can be used to heat water to turn steam turbines.) Advantages – no carbon, sulphur, or nitrogen oxides produces. Disadvantages – radioactive waste, safety systems needed are very expensive. * Nuclear fusion (energy is released when deuterium and tritium â€Å"fuse† to create helium) Advantages – potentially almost limitless as an energy supply as the reactants come from water. Disadvantages – very costly, cannot currently be produced at economic rates. * Moving air (wind turns windmills and wind turbines. Lots of research is already being carried out and soon may provide 10% of the UK's energy) Advantages – renewable, pollution and waste free, can be used in locality to where the energy is needed. Disadvantages – high initial expense, not reliable in calm weather, noise and visual environmental impact * Moving water (Hydroelectricity – water stored behind dams can be released through turbines to generate electricity. Waves – The motion of waves is used to create oscillating motion. Tides – incoming tides in river estuaries fill up large water stores behind barrages, which is then released through turbines.) Advantages – renewable, predictable, pollution and waste free, large scale. Disadvantages – costly to install, environmental impact. * Sunlight (Solar panels – collect solar heat and are used to heat water. Photovoltaic cells – convert light into electricity). Advantages – renewable, pollution and waste free. Disadvantages – Not good for places of low sunlight levels, high initial costs, not very practical for large-scale use. * Geothermal energy (heat from rocks under the Earth's surface can be used to heat water which can, in turn, be used to heat houses). Advantages – practically unlimited. Disadvantages – not widely available, large initial costs * Hydrogen (extracted from water by electrolysis, many things are capable of running on hydrogen). Advantages – no pollution. Disadvantages – people are nervous about using such a dangerously explosive gas, difficult to store and transport. If some of these possibilities were researched further, they could replace fossil fuels and help many of the previously discussed issues.

Free Essays on Effect Of Heredity And Environment

Effects of Heredity and Environment on individual Differences Most psychologists acknowledge that both heredity and environment are influential; the argument is over which factor is predominant The nature-nurture issue first became a controversy in the 1920's and the 1930's. Some psychologists felt that heredity was the primary, if not the sole, factor in the development of an individual. Others felt environment was the critical determining factor. As we saw in Unit One, this controversy is still unresolved. Still, most psychologists agree that some degree of interaction between heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) determines both physical and psychological development. In this module we will consider the relation of both factors to intelligence and behavior disorder. As you read the text, consider the following questions. Has heredity or environment made the greater contribution to your development? Are there any upper or lower limits of intellectual achievement? What research methods are used in heredity-environment studies? The interaction between heredity and environment can be studied by investigating families and persons who are related in various ways. Hereditary similarity is relatively well understood. A parent and child, for example, have 50% of their genes in common, but among siblings this may vary from 0 to 100% due to the random distribution of chromosomes. Identical twins have the same heredity; 100% of their chromosomes are alike. Environmental differences cannot be stated in such concrete terms. No two persons experience an identical environment. Very similar environments are usually experienced by same-sexed twins, whether identical or fraternal. Different-sexed twins, siblings, and parents all experience somewhat different environments, although these environments may be superficially similar. Occasionally, identical twins are reared apart. Then we have two people with identical here... Free Essays on Effect Of Heredity And Environment Free Essays on Effect Of Heredity And Environment Effects of Heredity and Environment on individual Differences Most psychologists acknowledge that both heredity and environment are influential; the argument is over which factor is predominant The nature-nurture issue first became a controversy in the 1920's and the 1930's. Some psychologists felt that heredity was the primary, if not the sole, factor in the development of an individual. Others felt environment was the critical determining factor. As we saw in Unit One, this controversy is still unresolved. Still, most psychologists agree that some degree of interaction between heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) determines both physical and psychological development. In this module we will consider the relation of both factors to intelligence and behavior disorder. As you read the text, consider the following questions. Has heredity or environment made the greater contribution to your development? Are there any upper or lower limits of intellectual achievement? What research methods are used in heredity-environment studies? The interaction between heredity and environment can be studied by investigating families and persons who are related in various ways. Hereditary similarity is relatively well understood. A parent and child, for example, have 50% of their genes in common, but among siblings this may vary from 0 to 100% due to the random distribution of chromosomes. Identical twins have the same heredity; 100% of their chromosomes are alike. Environmental differences cannot be stated in such concrete terms. No two persons experience an identical environment. Very similar environments are usually experienced by same-sexed twins, whether identical or fraternal. Different-sexed twins, siblings, and parents all experience somewhat different environments, although these environments may be superficially similar. Occasionally, identical twins are reared apart. Then we have two people with identical here...

Greek Achievement essays

Greek Achievement essays When discussing ancient civilizations, one of the most prominent has to be the Greek civilization. Under the rule of various rulers, Greece saw a change from a pagan worshiping society that was almost abolished, to an enduring civilization that strived on philosophy, and intellectual thought. As the Greeks dispensed the gods in political life, they based government on human intelligence. The evolution of the Greek polis, or city-state, from a tribal-religious institution to a secular rational institution, that is regarded as one of the greatest in the history of mankind, was only a part of the general transition of the Greek mind from myth to reason. What separated the Greeks from other Near Eastern civilizations, as well as gave it enduring significance, was the Greeks gradual realization that political problems are caused by man and require earthly solutions. The Greeks also had a strong belief in their system of the city-state but it eventually would contribute to their demise. These city-states allowed for much separation within their political life, and thus was the cause for much suffering. Greece would endure two major wars, which would shape their civilization, and have a lasting effect. First was the Persian Wars with Sparta. Because Sparta was a walled city, and couldnt compete with the Athenian culture, Athens eventually triumphed. One of the most fascinating contrasts in this war is how different the two city-states could be. Athens was located on the peninsula of Attica, near the coast, possessed a great navy, and was a commercial leader for the Greeks. Sparta was a land power and was exclusively agricultur al. Spartas leaders pursued an isolationist foreign policy, and believed in keeping their freedom on the homeland. The Athenians had such things as democracy, and extended their hegemony over the Greeks. Unfortunately, after the long battles between Athens and Sparta were finally laid ...

Baroque vs. Classical Music Essay

When many people listen to music from earlier periods, they classify it all as classical music, when although there were many periods of music. Although the two may sound similar to the untrained ear, the Baroque style and the Classical styles of music have many differences. The Baroque Period (1600-1750) was a revolutionary period for music. Preceded by the renaissance, the Baroque Period offered new and different things to music. Common tools were used such as counterpoint and fugue that transformed music.There was a growth in the uses of new Instruments such as the trumpet, French horn, and piano. Composers, such as Johan Sebastian Bach, concentrated on what the music notes lead to and what sounded good to listen to. Bach, who composed over 1200 pieces, was the gold standard for Baroque music, helping to regulate harmony In music. Baroque music was all about emotion. Composers used these tools to weave and blend different sounds together to create unison. Counterpoint NAS a popular tool used, where two separate lines were played together to make harmony. A lot went on in Baroque music. The Classical Period (1750-1825), on the other hand was a lot simpler. Instead of having many instruments playing lines at once in harmony, many instruments would play softly in the background while a solo instrument would play. Classical music consisted of a single melody. Baroque music was very complex, and demonstrated polyphony, where many different sounds went on at the same time, whereas Classical music demonstrated homophony, where the same sounds were played. Form was also a big factor in Classical music.Baroque composers were more concerned about Viking emotion than the form of their piece; Classical composers were the opposite Classical composers demonstrated clear cut form, whereas Baroque composers blended everything together. Classical music was also very repetitive. Composers Would not change much, it was the same melody played over and over. I prefer Baroque music over Classical music. I chose Baroque music because it is a lot more interesting. Classical music is too simple compared to Baroque music. With Baroque music, more emotion is evoked. A great example of this is Vivaldi The FourSeasons where you could actually tell which season Is portrayed by which piece by listening carefully. To me, Classical music Is too boring and repetitive. Baroque music always keeps me on my toes, keeping me guessing at what Is coming next. I care more about what a piece means than the form It Is written In. Although I prefer Baroque music, I do not discredit Classical music at all. A lot of brilliant pieces came from both periods of music. Ay ignominious There was a growth in the uses of new instruments such as the trumpet, French harmony in music. Baroque music was all about emotion. Composers used these Nas a popular tool used, where two separate lines were played together to make The Classical Period (175()-1825), on the other hand was a lot simpler. Instead of Mould not change much, it was the same melody played over and over. Seasons where you could actually tell which season is portrayed by which piece by listening carefully. To me, Classical music is too boring and repetitive. Baroque music always keeps me on my toes, keeping me guessing at what is coming next. I care more about what a piece means than the form it is written in.

Cost Report for the Average Physical Education teachers Salary Essay

Cost Report for the Average Physical Education teachers Salary - Essay Example Teacher salary follows a strict clustering system, which ensures that every teacher receives a pay commensurate to his or her duties. The cost of an average teacher in the state of Georgia is $ 74,985.07; this is the sum of a basic teacher salary and a number of other benefits, which make the career more attractive. The American government has a set minimum wage for every employee in the country, a feature that protects every citizen from exploitation by employers. The minimum wage in the state of Georgia is $ 20,000 implying that teacher salary is above the minimum wage and therefore conscious of the economic factors in the country. Among the common benefits that teachers enjoy are health insurance, medical insurance, social security, and workman’s compensation insurance. These benefits also vary depending on the nature of a teacher’s responsibilities in the school. The United States of America is a developed country and the government strives to provide the basic life support features in every region thereby dispelling the need for hardship allowances. The table below breaks down the teacher salaries in the state of Georgia: Average teacher cost Pay schedule $ 52,852.32 Local supplement $ 4,447.68 Health insurance $ 10,619.98 FICA $ 830.85 TRS $ 5,890.44 Total teacher salary $ 74,985.07 The additional costs such as the health insurance and the social security contribution all apply in form of uniform percentages of the scheduled pay. This implies that a teacher with a higher basic salary receives larger additional benefits thus validating the salary disparities among the teachers. The salary tabulation above refers to that of an average teacher in the state of Georgia and is therefore applicable to the physical education teacher at Alcovy High School, which is in the Newton county school management system. This therefore exempts Alcovy High School from paying its teachers the social security’s benefits. This way, after paying the teacher their basic remuneration of $52,852.23, the school will further pay the teachers an additional $17,685.07 in benefits thus resulting in a total of $74,985.07, which therefore becomes the cost of an average physical education’s teacher at the facility. There are different sources for this money, teachers are civil servants and therefore paid by the government. However, the school and its other related school systems and state departments also have a prerogative for paying teachers owing to their roles in the subsequent positions. Teachers have their entitlement depending on the nature of their assignments at the facility. The school for example must consider its teacher student ration to ensure that it does not overwork its teachers. The state for example pays every teacher $47,957.59 out of the total $74,985.07, which is the actual cost of every teacher. This implies that the rest of the funding comes for the subsequent systems and departments. In this context, the state send s this money to the Newton county school system. The system and the department thus pay every teacher the additional $27,093.01 to make the figure complete. However, teachers just as the rest of civil servants remit their taxes to the government. This therefore reduces the cost of hiring a teacher, since it is the same government paying the teachers and accepting their tax remittance.

The Pillars of Policing Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10000 words

The Pillars of Policing - Dissertation Example Through the use of the first pillar of helping to create a safe and secured environment the police department focuses on activities like tracking criminals, curbing criminal and vandalistic activities in the region and efficiently dealing with incidents of significant criticality. The second pillar of policing helps Sussex Police in making them better visible and approachable by the general public. Through this pillar the police department of Sussex endeavors to closely knit their activities with different communities to perform in a proactive manner. This practice also helps the police department to retrieve quality information and responses from the people which thereby helps them in curbing crimes. The third pillar is used by the police force to make efficient and optimal use of the human and financial resources of the police organization to effectively track down the criminal operations of the region. (Three Pillars, n.d.). The police force of Scotland operates on the basis of fi ve basic principles to promote a safer region for the citizens to dwell in. These operational principles or the pillars of Scotland police consist of acts like safeguarding the society from criminal activities, breaking the network of drug trafficking, reassuring the general people that they are safe through the conducting of patrolling operations, prioritizing the safety of the road environment for the driving and daily commuters, and finally helping the police force to become increasingly advanced and trained to handle complexities. (Central Scotland Police, n.d.). Similarly the community policing activities of United Kingdom are also based on eight operational pillars which can be enumerated as follows. The first operational pillar of community policing is to reduce the rate of criminal activities and the rate of disorderliness in the region. Secondly the actions of the police must be conducted of, by and for the general public and not for the sake of meeting operational guidelin es. Public approval for police operations is highly essential for reducing the former’s conflicts with the administration. Thirdly following the above context the police administration of a region must reflect a high amount of honor for the citizens of a country in desiring them to abide by the rule of the land. Fourthly the police administration of a country must endeavor to minimize the use force on making the people abide by the rules of the land physical torture affects the cooperative mechanism of the society with the administration. The fifth operational pillar of community policing states however justifies the use of force when all other arbitration mechanisms fail to reduce public tension. Sixthly more specifically the police system in the society must visualize itself as a key force in restoring safety and harmony in the community and thus be socially accountable. Seventhly the operational pillar also holds that the police system must not augment its potential throug h judicial involvement but must depend on its own actions. Finally in the eighth position the operational pillar holds that measurement of true efficiency of the police force is done on by observing the rate of absence of crime and social disorder and not merely the police’s actions related to such. (Special Feature: Historical Perspective, n.d.). The paper in this context draws a comparison of the police actions of United Kingdom with that of United States. The Police system in United

Cheapchip Cooke Project Business Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Cheapchip Cooke Project Business Plan - Essay Example Next, fixed overhead costs must also be managed with much care because here electricity and gas costs might rise even without the knowledge of the management. A significant percentage of businesses are faced with the threat oc closure nowadays because of the rising energy costs. Finally, cost centers or cost drivers as they are known in accounting jargon, must be identified before costs are allocated to them. Failure to do so will lead to confusion as to which area of the business has higher costs and which less. * Operating Leverage may be defined as the ability of a firm to use its fixed operating costs (rent etc.) to magnify the effect of changes in sales on its earnings before interest and tax (EBIT). The formula for Degree of Operating Leverage (DOL) is: 3. Number of cookies of various categories that can be baked during 180 days are: 1792 x 180 = 3,22,560 while my budgeted annual sales stand at 3,87,082 (the margin of safety output). I assume that the difference of 64,522 cookies can be baked with some overtime work assigned to full-time workers. My calculations of the break-even points or output levels are based on a realistic assumption of what is desirable and achievable given the capacity constraint imposed by the 112 batch of cookies per 30 minutes. Working hours per day cannot be stretched beyond 8 unless overtime payment is given to those workers who willingly work after the 8-hour shift during the night. My calculations of costs both fixed and overhead are based on realistic estimates that included the additional costs of selling cookies such as the cost of 0.25 cents per cookie sold. Also I have taken into consideration the total fixed cost as equivalent to $ 40,000 per year excluding the depreciation charge. I have assumed a breakeven point of 70,000 cookies per annum of type C1 which is priced at $ 0.50. Even if the